Adulterants in crack cocaine in Brazil
Adulterantes no crack vendido na “Cracolândia”
Marcelo Ribeiro; Alisson Paulino Trevizol; Rosana Frajzinger; Ariadne Ribeiro; Hannelore Speierl; Luciana Pires; Maristela Andraus; Lolita Tsanaclis; Ana Leonor Sala Alonso; Quirino Cordeiro; Ronaldo Laranjeira
Abstract
Keywords
Resumo
Palavras-chave
References
Ribeiro M, Dunn J, Laranjeira R, Sesso R. High mortality among young crack cocaine users in Brazil: a 5-year follow-up study. Addiction. 2004;99:1133-5.
Ribeiro M, Dunn J, Sesso R, Dias AC, Laranjeira R. Causes of death among crack cocaine users. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2006;28:196-202.
Duailibi LB, Ribeiro M, Laranjeira R. Profile of cocaine and crack users in Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2008;24(^sSuppl 4):s545-57.
Ribeiro M, Duailibi S, Frajzinger R, Alonso AL, Marchetti L, Williams AV. Abuse and addiction: crack. Rev Assoc Med Bras. 2012;58:141-53.
Ribeiro M, Duailibi S, Frajzinger R, Alonso AL, Marchetti L, Williams AV. The Brazilian “Cracolandia” open drug scene and the challenge of implementing a comprehensive and effective drug policy. Addiction. 2016;111:571-3.
Abdalla RR, Madruga CS, Ribeiro M, Pinsky I, Caetano R, Laranjeira R. Prevalence of cocaine use in Brazil: data from the II Brazilian national alcohol and drugs survey (BNADS). Addict Behav. 2014;39:297-301.
Carvalho DG de, Mídio AF. Quality of cocaine seized in 1997 in the street-drug market of São Paulo city, Brazil. Rev Bras Cienc Farm. 2003;39:71-5.
Tanner-Smith EE. Pharmacological content of tablets sold as “ecstasy”: results from an online testing service. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;83:247-54.
Human Development Reports. .
Brunt TM, Nagy C, Bucheli A, Martins D, Ugarte M, Beduwe C. Drug testing in Europe: monitoring results of the Trans European Drug Information (TEDI) project. Drug Test Anal. 2017;9:188-98.
Tsanaclis L, Wicks JFC. Differentiation between drug use and environmental contamination when testing for drugs in hair. Forensic Sci Int. 2008;176:19-22.
Brunt TM, Rigter S, Hoek J, Vogels N, van Dijk P, Niesink RJ. An analysis of cocaine powder in the Netherlands: content and health hazards due to adulterants. Addiction. 2009;104:798-805.
Barrio G, Saavedra P, de la Fuente L, Royuela L. Purity of cocaine seized in Spain, 1985-1993: variations by weight, province and year of seizure. Forensic Sci Int. 1997;85:15-28.
Fucci N, De Giovanni N. Adulterants encountered in the illicit cocaine market. Forensic Sci Int. 1998;95:247-52.
Cole C, Jones L, McVeigh J, Kicman A, Syed Q, Bellis M. Adulterants in illicit drugs: a review of empirical evidence. Drug Test Anal. 2011;3:89-96.
Buchanan JA, Oyer RJ, Patel NR, Jacquet GA, Bornikova L, Thienelt C. A confirmed case of agranulocytosis after use of cocaine contaminated with levamisole. J Med Toxicol. 2010;6:160-4.
Magalhaes EJ, Nascentes CC, Pereira LS, Guedes ML, Lordeiro RA, Auler LM. Evaluation of the composition of street cocaine seized in two regions of Brazil. Sci Justice. 2013;53:425-32.
Maldaner AO, Botelho ÉD, Zacca JJ, Melo RCA, Costa JL, Zancanaro I. Chemical profiling of street cocaine from different Brazilian regions. J Braz Chem Soc. 2016;27:719-26.
Chang A, Osterloh J, Thomas J. Levamisole: a dangerous new cocaine adulterant. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2010;88:408-11.
Hofmaier T, Luf A, Seddik A, Stockner T, Holy M, Freissmuth M. Aminorex, a metabolite of the cocaine adulterant levamisole, exerts amphetamine like actions at monoamine transporters. Neurochem Int. 2014;73:32-41.
Cheng YC, Po HL. Leukoencephalopathy after levamisole for the treatment of verrucae. Acta Neurol Taiwan. 2011;20:262-6.
Abeyagunawardena AS, Karunadasa U, Jayaweera H, Thalgahagoda S, Tennakoon S, Abeyagunawardena S. Efficacy of higher-dose levamisole in maintaining remission in steroid-dependant nephrotic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol. 2017;32:1363-7.
Collister D, Sathianathan C, Ryz K, Karpinski M, Bernstein K, Gibson IW. ANCA-associated vasculitis secondary to levamisole-adultered cocaine with associated membranous nephropathy: A case series. Am J Nephrol. 2017;45:209-16.
Hernandes MR, Moraes LC, Ribeiro EB, Fagundes DL, Honorio-Franca AC, Franca EL. In vitro immunomodulatory effects of microemulsions with levamisole delivery systems on blood phagocytes interacting with Giardia lamblia. Parasitol Int. 2017;66:299-304.
Xu N, Zhou W, Shuy L, Zhou G, Zhang N. Clinical and MRI characteristics of levamisole-induced leukoencephalopathy in 16 patients. J Neuroimaging. 2009;13:326-31.
Bianco F, Iacovelli E, Tinelli E, Lepre C, Pauri F. Recurrent leukoencephalopathy in a cocaine abuser. Neurotoxicology. 2011;32:410-2.
Gonzalez-Duarte A, Williams R. Cocaine-induced recurrent leukoencephalopathy. Neuroradiol J. 2013;26:511-3.
Vosoughi R, Schmidt BJ. Multifocal leukoencephalopathy in cocaine users: a report of two cases and review of the literature. BMC Neurol. 2015;15.
Larocque A, Hoffman RS. Levamisole in cocaine: unexpected news from an old acquaintance. Clin Toxicol. 2012;50:231-41.
Gertner E, Hamlar D. Necrotizing granulomatous vasculitis associated with cocaine use. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:1795-7.
McKinney CD, Postiglione KF, Herold DA. Benzocaine-adultered street cocaine in association with methemoglobinemia. Clin Chem. 1992;38:596-7.
Chakladar A, Willers JW, Pereskokova E, Beaumont PO, Uncles DR. White powder, blue patient: methaemoglobinaemia associated with benzocaine-adulterated cocaine. Resuscitation. 2010;81:138-9.